Battles in Hilo

Hilo

Battle 5: Hiʻiaka evicts Panaʻewa and his horde from his forest

Pele had many lovers, and the stories of those unions may be distant reflections of political mergers. She fell in love with Lohiau from Kauaʻi and asked her sisters to fetch him, but they refused to travel so far through unfamiliar and dangerous lands that were populated with, among other obstacles, the moʻo. Moʻo were ancient guardian spirits and major goddesses worshipped by the earliest inhabitants of Hawaiʻi (Charlot 1987:47; Malo 1951:82), but to Pele and her adherents, the moʻo were demons that had to be removed from the face of the earth, or at the least, subjugated (Beckwith 1970:174; Emerson 2005:13; Westervelt 1999:98).

Pele had fallen in love with Lohiau, an aliʻi from far across the Hawaiian island chain in Kauaʻi. But he died before he could return with her to Hawaiʻi. Pele met with her sisters in Kīlauea and asked if any would go to Kauaʻi to retrieve and revive Lohiau. Pele’s youngest sister, Hiʻiaka, took up the challenge, and she set out from their abode in Halemaʻumaʻu.

The ancient story of Hiʻiaka’s journey is an epic that rivals any and all from around the world. There are many versions (including Westervelt 1999:96), but none compare to the poetic presentation by Emerson (2005), who supplies the original Hawaiian chants, English translation, and commentary.

Hiʻiaka’s soon encountered the mighty moʻo Panaʻewa who ruled over the lands east of Hilo in the Panaʻewa forest. The army of Panaʻewa ambushed Hiʻiaka in those dense and gnarled woods and gained the upper hand early on in the battle while Hiʻiaka’s companion Pāʻūopalaʻe fought valiantly with her magical weapon, a pāʻū (skirt) that could shoot lightning bolts. But Panaʻewa’s troops had the upper hand in their dark jungle. Pāʻūopalaʻe prayed for deliverance, and her prayers were heard and answered by Pele’s siblings. She dispatched her warrior brothers. “Heaven and earth stirred at their onset. The visible signs of their array were manifest in columns of seething fire-shot clouds that hovered like vultures over the advancing army. Arrived at striking distance, they let loose their lightning-bolts and sounded their thunder-gongs. Earth and heaven at once became turmoiled in one confused whirl of warring elements.” (Emerson 2005:44-45). The moʻo horde of Panaʻewa faltered, scattered, and were diminishing under this onslaught. Ultimately Panaʻewa himself fell in defeat. He was swept out to sea and died in the waves in a place that is just offshore of Papaʻi. “Hawaiʻi for once, and for all time, was rid of that pestilential, man-eating, moʻo band headed by Pana-ewa who, from the time of Pele’s coming, had remained entrenched in the beautiful forest-land that still bears the name – Pana-ewa” (Emerson 2005:46).

Beckwith, M. W. 1970. Hawaiian Mythology. The University of Hawai‘i Press, Honolulu.

Charlot, J. 1987. The Kamapuaʻa Literature: the Classical Traditions of the Hawaiian Pig God as a Body of Literature. The Institute for Polynesian Studies Monograph Series No. 6. University of Hawaiʻi Press, Honolulu.

Emerson, N.B. 2005. Pele and Hiʻiaka: A Myth from Hawaiʻi. Revised Edition, Edith Kanakaʻole Press, Hilo.

Malo, D. 1951. Hawaiian Antiquities: Moʻolelo Hawaiʻi. Translated by N.B. Emerson. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 2, Second Edition, Honolulu.

Westervelt, W. D. 1999. Hawaiian Legends of Volcanoes. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Hilo

Battle 7: Hiʻiaka frees the pathway in Hilo from the control of the moʻo

Several bridges span the Wailuku River near its mouth at Hilo Bay. Car and foot travel is easy and frequent now, but it was not so when Hiʻiaka was moving about the island. Standing on one of those bridges, one can look out into the river bed and imagine the scene unfolding when Hiʻiaka confronted the moʻo that controlled the river crossing.

After defeating the moʻo Mahiki, Hiʻiaka doubled back to Hilo to settle a score there. She headed for the rickety plank bridge that provided the only way to cross the turbulent and dangerous Wailuku River (Emerson 2005: 56), appropriately named the river of destructive water (Pukui and Elbert 1986:379). Two sorcerers controlled the bridge, and demanded a toll for every passage. Hiʻiaka and the sorcerers engaged in a war of words in front of the villagers of Hilo. The villagers supported the sorcerers, even after Hiʻiaka finally declared that they were nothing more than moʻo in disguise. The two compromised moʻo, Piliamoʻo and Nohoamoʻo decided that running away was their best hope, but Hiʻiaka tracked them down and either torn them limb from limb (Emerson 2005:60) or turned them into stones (Westervelt 1999:122). “Thus did Hiiaka add one more to the score of her victories in the extermination of the moʻo” (Emerson 2005:60).

Hiʻiaka was not the only one to go around ridding the lands of moʻo or bringing the old rulers into submission. Kana, the shape-changing hero from the uplands above Hilo and close contemporary of Pili and Pāʻau, (Beckwith 1970:477) made it his business to rid Oʻahu of moʻo (Armitage and Judd 1944:141). Meanwhile, another contemporary of Pili’s named Kamiki, a supernatural one born of mysterious form in the uplands above Kohanaiki and Kaloko, circumnavigated the entire island of Hawaiʻi fulfilling his duty to subdue all disreputable warriors and dishonorable priests (Maly 1992:ii).

Armitage, G. T., and H. P. Judd 1944. Ghost Dog and Other Hawaiian Legends. Advertiser Publishing Co., Ltd., Honolulu.

Beckwith, M. W. 1970. Hawaiian Mythology. The University of Hawai‘i Press, Honolulu.

Maly, K., translator 1992 An Account of Place Name Histories of Hawaiʻi as Recorded in Kaʻao Hoʻoniua Puʻuwai No Ka-Miki (The Heart Stirring Story of Ka-Miki). Newspaper Ka Hōkū o Hawaiʻi January 8, 1914 through December 6, 1917.

Emerson, N.B. 2005. Pele and Hiʻiaka: A Myth from Hawaiʻi. Revised Edition, Edith Kanakaʻole Press, Hilo.

Pukui, M.K., and S.H. Elbert 1986. Hawaiian Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Hilo and Kaʻū

Battles 8, 9 and 10: The moʻo unite and take the fight to Pele

While moʻo were feeling the pinch of the expanding new wave of immigrants, they also managed to take the battle directly to Pele. Kihawahine, a powerful moʻo goddess (Beckwith 1970:125), was angered when her lover named Puna tried to leave her and hide with Pele (Westervelt 1991:157). Kihawahine gathered all of the mo‘o from the entire island chain, and went to Kīlauea to demand that they release her man. They fought at Pele’s doorstep [8], and many mo‘o were killed. Kihawahine escaped to a fishpond east of Hilo called Lokoaka, “the shadow of the dragon”, and from there hightailed it to Molokaʻi. Another version of this legend has Pele’s husband Puna, short for Punaʻaikoaʻe, being seduced by a different but just as beautiful moʻo named Wakakeakaikawai (Manu 1899:52) (moʻo could change form from lizard to human). This was the pretext for a huge battle at Punaluʻu and Honuʻapo [9] between all of the moʻo from the island chain against Pele. Pele eventually chased Puna and his moʻo lover Waka around the eastern coast of the island finally vanquishing them at the large fishpond that now bears the name Lokowaka, “Waka’s pond” [10].

The pond is just east of Hilo along the coast. Kalanianaʻole Avenue through Keaukaha passes over the northern edge of the Lonowaka where a restaurant is built over the pond’s shoreline.

Beckwith, M. W. 1970. Hawaiian Mythology. The University of Hawai‘i Press, Honolulu.

Manu, M. (Tone-Iahuanu-Tahuira-Iarafrie) 1899. A Hawaiian Legend of a Terrible War between Pele-of-the-Eternal-Fires and Waka-of-the-Shadowy-Waters. Translated by M. K Pukui. From Ka Loea Kalaiaina,, May 13-December 30. Hawaiian Ethnological Notes 2:942 to 1008. Bishop Museum Library, Honolulu.

Westervelt, W. D. 1963 (1991). Hawaiian Legends of Ghosts and Ghost-Gods. Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, Vermont.

Hilo

Battle 12: Mauians attack the island of Hawaiʻi

Following the establishment of the new order, the new chiefs began to vie for territory. This was a time when the local district chiefs were very powerful, and were not yet under the firm control of an island-wide ruler (Kalakaua 1990:77). District chiefs attacked other district chiefs and even sailed to other islands to plunder.

The earliest invasion of the island of Hawaiʻi came from the island of Maui. It took place at Hakalau, and may have been as early as the late 1100s or as late as the early 1400s, when the war-loving Maui ruler Huaʻakapuaʻimanakū (also known a Huaʻapohukaina), using his war club Kalāʻaualomakauahi slaughtered the unnamed Hawaiʻi chiefs in the battle called Kaniuhoʻopio (Kamakau 1991:148) or Kaniuhoohio (Fornander 1996:41).

Fornander, A. 1996. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Kalakaua, D. 1990. The Legends and Myths of Hawaii. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Kamakau, S. M. 1991. Tales and Traditions of the People of Old Nā Moʻolelo a ka Poʻe Kahiko. Translated by M.K. Pukui. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

Hilo and Puna and Kau and Kona

Battles 25 through 29: ʻUmialīloa establishes his dominion over the entire island

Hākau had been a ruthless ruler, so many chiefs were supportive of ʻUmi at the outset (Fornander 1996:96). There were concerns about having this new ruler born of a women of unrecognized rank, however (Elbert 1959:160), and the high chiefs of each district declared their independence from the new island ruler ʻUmi (Elbert 1959:158). After ʻUmi had been slighted in an encounter in Hilo he decided to march his army there. Starting in his royal home in Waipio valley, he took the high mountainous trail of Poliʻahu (Kamakau 1992:16) in an attempt to stay undetected as he approached Hilo. A fisherman named Nau from Puʻuʻeo just north of Hilo discovered the advancing army and met them at a narrow pass above Kaūmana where the army of ʻUmi had to proceed in single file. There Nau single handedly killed many warriors [25] until they finally figured a way around (Elbert 1959:166; Kamakau 1992:17). The army advanced upon and destroyed the chiefs of Hilo [26] after that, thus taking control of the Hāmākua and Hilo districts.

ʻUmi and his army headed southeast to Puna and defeated the Puna chief Huaʻa at the battle of Kuolo near Keaʻau [27] (Elbert 1959:168). ʻUmi’s army then moved south and may have set up headquarters at Ahuaʻumi (Kamakau 1992:35). From there he set to attack the amazing blind Kaʻū [28] warrior ruler named Imaikalani (Iʻi 1959:20) at the battle of Kapaliikua (Kamakau 1992:408). Imaikalani could throw five spears with each hand, and had the help of forty spear carriers and his two birds that guided him in battle, but he fell to the crafty general in ʻUmi’s army named Piʻimaiwaʻa (Kamakau 1992:18). ʻUmi’s militia then took Kona and Kohala by defeating ʻEhunuikaimalino [29] (Kamakau 1992:19), thereby establishing his authority over the entire island. Soon after that ʻUmi moved the seat of power for the island from Waipiʻo to Kailua in Kona.

Elbert, S. H. (editor) 1959. Selections from Fornander’s Hawaiian Antiquities and Folklore. The University of Hawai‘i Press, Honolulu.

Fornander, A. 1996. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

I‘i, J. 1959. Fragments of Hawaiian History. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

Kamakau, S. M. 1992. Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, Revised Edition. The Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Kona and Hilo

Battles 54 and 55: The civil war ends

Keaweikekahialiʻiokamoku (also known as Keawe) was in line to rule with the passing of his mother Keākealaniwahine. Sometime around AD 1720 he managed to reunite the island under his rulership through diplomatic means (Fornander 1996:129), and he ruled peacefully in tandem with his half sister Kalanikauleleiaiwi. The strong east-west schism flared up again (or could be considered a continuation of the old civil war) when Keawe died, and his son Kalanikeʻeaumoku claimed to be ruler of the island, after perhaps somehow arranging for the slaying of his elder brother Kalaninuiʻīamamao (Fornander 1996:132). Mokulani from the eastern Hilo side refused to acknowledge Kalanikeʻeaumoku. Even more troublesome for Kalanikeʻeaumoku, his half brother Alapaʻinuiakauaua (also known as Alapaʻi), decided to make a move. Alapaʻi attacked and killed Kalanieʻeaumoku and conquered the Kona chiefs at unspecified locations [54] (Kamakau 1992:65) presumably in Kona. His forces then dispatched Mokulani, probably in his seat of power in Hilo [55], and took control of the entire island.

Fornander, A. 1996. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Kamakau, S. M. 1992. Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, Revised Edition. The Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Hilo and Puna

Battles 61 through 65: Kalaniopuʻu’s failed attempt to kidnap Kamehameha

Alapaʻinuiakauaua and his aliʻi entourage, including a young Kamehameha who was born during the reign of Alapaʻi, were staying at the royal center in Piʻopiʻo at Hilo sometime in the 1750s when suddenly Kamehameha’s father died. Alapaʻi’s nephew Kalaniopuʻu claimed that Alapaʻi was responsible for that death. Kalaniopuʻu then tried and failed to kidnap Kamehameha. In retribution, Alapa’i sent his warriors out to attack Kalaniopuʻu’s troops that were camped at a nearby hill overlooking the royal fishpond of Kalepolepo [61] (Iʻi 1959:3; Kamakau 1992:76). Kalaniopuʻu survived the engagement and retreated to the edge of the forest at Pā‘ie‘ie [62] (Fornander 1996:144) where the next day they ambushed and slaughtered most of the onrushing Alapaʻi troops along a narrow path in the woods. Alapaʻi then sent out another squad to chase Kalaniopuʻu through Puna. Battles were fought at Kualoa [63] and Mokaulele [64] and Mahinaakaka [65] as Kalaniopuʻu worked his way southward to his home and base of power in Kaʻū. The victorious Kalaniopuʻu declared himself ruler of Kaʻū and Puna, and independent of Alapaʻi. Alapaʻi left him alone.

Fornander, A. 1996. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

I‘i, J. 1959. Fragments of Hawaiian History. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

Kamakau, S. M. 1992. Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, Revised Edition. The Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Hilo

Battle 74: Chief Kamehameha has a chance encounter with Maui forces

Kamehameha had established himself as an impressive warrior in the service of Kalaniopuʻu. He was a favorite in the Kalaniopuʻu court, and he caught the fancy of Kanekapolei, one of Kalaniopuʻu’s wives (Iʻi 1959:7; Kamakau 1992:311), and by this liaison, she gave birth to the man that ultimately had two famous granddaughters: Princess Ruth Keʻelikolani and Bernice Pauahi Bishop. It was also widely circulated that Kahekili, the powerful ruler of Maui and Oʻahu, was the biological father of Kamehameha (Desha 2000:32; Fornander 1996:260; Kalakaua 1990:365). Perhaps this was boasting to enhance his virility and thus his stature as a warrior. Perhaps it was strategic posturing to call into the question the genealogical standing of his opponents while enhancing his own. Perhaps it was simply how it was in the tight-knit ruling lineage.

Like his brethren chiefs, Kamehameha moved about the island with his entourage, staying at political centers in friendly districts. On one such occasion he travelled with over 300 warriors of the Hunalele division of his army, and was hosted by Princess Keakealani at Hakalau (Desha 2000:67). By coincidence, a group of warriors from Maui lead by Kahāhāwai, including the renowned Kaihe, known as the Black Tattoo of Kahekili, were a little further upland collecting wood to build canoes. Although this was officially a time of peace between Maui and Hawai‘i, each of the warriors desired to test their strength against the other. The Hunalele division thwarted an attempted ambush. Then Kekūhaupi‘o, Kamehameha’s mentor in the ways of warfare, isolated the Black Tattoo, and the two great warriors fought to the death. Kekūhaupi‘o was victorious with the use of his thrusting spear, and with the death of Kaihe, the Maui warriors fled the battlefield.

Desha, S. L. 2000. Kamehameha and His Warrior Kekūhaupi‘o. Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Fornander, A. 1996. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

I‘i, J. 1959. Fragments of Hawaiian History. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

Kalakaua, D. 1990. The Legends and Myths of Hawaii. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Kamakau, S. M. 1992. Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, Revised Edition. The Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Hilo and Puna

Battles 78 and 79: Kānekoa and Kahai stir up discontent among the three island factions

With the death of Kīwalaʻō, the island was split into three ruling factions. The highest ranking chief of the three groups was Keawemaʻuhili. He ruled over Hilo, Puna, and part of Hāmākua. The next highest ranking chief was Keōua, who ruled over Kaʻū. Of lesser rank was Kamehameha, who had the support of the chiefs of Kona, his home Kohala, and part of Hāmākua. Kānekoa and his brother Kahai had joined forces with Kīwalaʻō at the battle of Mokuʻōhai, but after Kīwalaʻō was killed there, they fell in with Keawemaʻuhili. For undisclosed reasons Kānekoa and Kahai rebelled against Keawemaʻuhili in a battle somewhere in Hilo [78]. Their rebellion was suppressed and they fled to Kaʻū where Keōua took them in (Fornander 1992:316; Kam 92:124). Kānekoa and Kahai soon were dissatisfied with their lot there, and took up battle against Keōua at a place between ʻOlaʻa and Kīlauea [79] (Fornander 1992:316; Kamakau 1992:124; Desha 2000:170). Kānekoa was killed then, but Kahai escaped to Kamemameha in Kona where he implored Kamehameha to make war on Keōua and Keawemaʻuhili.

Desha, S. L. 2000. Kamehameha and His Warrior Kekūhaupi‘o. Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Fornander, A. 1996. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Kamakau, S. M. 1992. Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, Revised Edition. The Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Hilo

Battles 80 through 82: Kamehameha moves against Keawemaʻuhili in Hilo

Kamehameha decided to attack Keawemaʻuhili and Keōua to avenge his uncle, or at least that was the pretext. He sent Keʻeaumoku in canoes to Hilo while he marched over the saddle between Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa to Kīlauea. His scouts found that Keōua was at ʻŌhaikea to the west, so Kamehameha divided his forces at Kīlauea. He set a force under the direction of Ka‘iana‘ahu‘ula (often referred to as Ka‘iana) to defend that position (Desha 2000:181-2) from any potential attack from Keōua. Meanwhile, Kamehameha headed north to Hilo to pinch Keawema‘uhili against the Ke‘eaumoku army arriving from the ocean. The engagement at Hilo was known as the Bad Child Campaign and those to the south around Kīlauea were called the Battle of the Bitter Rains (Kamakau 1992:124).

Kamehameha’s forces camped at Puaʻaloa [80], just outside of the Panaʻewa woods, a few miles south of Hilo Bay. The defending Hilo forces were supported by troops from the neighbor island of Maui, and this large army outnumbered the invading Kamehameha army. They fought for three days around the upland perimeter of Hilo moving from Pū‘āinakō [81] northwest to Halaʻi [82]. Kamehameha’s forces suffered badly and he barely escaped by sea with Keʻeaumoku’s fleet. This battle was also referred to as Kauaawa (Fornander 1996:318).

Desha, S. L. 2000. Kamehameha and His Warrior Kekūhaupi‘o. Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Fornander, A. 1996. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Kamakau, S. M. 1992. Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, Revised Edition. The Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Hilo

Battle 93: Keōua overcomes Keawema‘uhili and incorporates his Hilo forces

Kamehameha decided to attack Maui again in 1790. Looking to enhance his chances, he asked for assistance in the form of canoes, feathered capes, and warriors from Keawema‘uhili, his old rival in Hilo. With that help, Kamehameha succeeded in taking Maui, and Molokaʻi. He was poised to invade Oʻahu. While in Molokaʻi contemplating his next move Kamehameha was reminded of the unfinished business on his home island. Keōua had turned his anger at Keawema‘uhili for helping Kamehameha into action and attacked the Hilo ruler at a battle at ‘Alae, north of Hilo Bay. Keawema‘uhili was killed, and Keōua became commander over two thirds of the island (Fornander 1996:240).

Fornander, A. 1996. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Hilo and Puna and Kaʻū

Battles 97 through 102: Kamehameha’s forces strike into Keōua lands

Fornander (1992:326) mentions that Keʻeaumoku with the foreigners John Young and Isaac Davis attacked Keōua’s forces somewhere in Hilo [97]. At the same time Kamehameha’s army under the direction of Ka‘iana took a fleet of war canoes to South Point [98]. Keōua’s warriors set out in canoes and attacked Ka‘iana’s men just off the coast there. The battle moved to land at Paiaha‘a below Kamā‘oa [99] (Desha 2000:288). The fierce battle lasted for three days. The two forces continued fighting at Kamā‘oa [100] and Ua‘ohulelua [101], where the struggle was worst of all (Kamakau 1992:153). Keōua maneuvered north to Punakoki in Puna [102] (Desha 2000:288) (called Puʻuakoki in Fornander 1996:327, and Puakokoki in Ellis 1974:210, and Puaʻakoki in Kamakau 1991:15) then made a stand before Ka‘iana’s pursuing army. They fought for three more days until Ka‘iana fled, boarding his canoes and leaving the east side of the island for the last time (Desha 2000:288).

Desha, S. L. 2000. Kamehameha and His Warrior Kekūhaupi‘o. Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Ellis, W. 1969. Polynesian Researches Hawaii. Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc., Rutland, Vermont.

Fornander, A. 1996. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Kamakau, S. M. 1992. Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, Revised Edition. The Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.

Hilo

Battle 105: King Kamehameha surpresses a rebellion in Hilo

Kamehameha now ruled the entire island of Hawaiʻi, and after spending a couple of years creating a large fleet of war canoes in Hilo he took his army to Oʻahu in 1795. The powerful ruler Kahekili had recently passed away and the western islands were vulnerable. Kamehameha took Oʻahu with a battle that climaxed at the cliffs at Nuʻuanu, and in doing so secured by force all of the islands except Kauaʻi.

Namakehā, who was the brother of Kaʻiana (Fornander 1996:277) and had previously fought alongside Kamehameha, started a rebellion in 1796 in the eastern half of the island of Hawai‘i while Kamehameha was in O‘ahu. Kamehameha returned to Hawaiʻi and landed with a fleet of warriors at Kaipalaoa near the mouth of the Wailuku River in Hilo. He defeated the rebels there, but Namakehā hid in the bush until he was captured in January, 1797. He was then offered in sacrifice to the gods in the heiau of Kaipalaoa (Kamakau 1992:174). This was the last of the battles fought by Kamehameha to unite the islands into a kingdom, and it was the last sacrifice conducted at a luakini heiau in Hawaiʻi.

A young boy named ʻŌpūkahaʻia whose parents served with Namakehā was orphaned in this battle (Dwight 1866). This lad eventually travelled to Massachusetts where he was among the inspirations for a number of Congregationalists there to come to Hawaiʻi as missionaries, the first arriving in 1821, soon after the death of Kamehameha. Ironically it was this wave of invaders that laid the foundation for the eventual overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi.

Dwight, Rev. E. W. 1866. Memoir of Henry Obookiah, a Native of the Sandwich Islands, who Died at Cornwall, Connecticut, February 17, 1818, Aged 26. Revised Edition, American Tract Society.

Fornander, A. 1996. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Kamakau, S. M. 1992. Ruling Chiefs of Hawaii, Revised Edition. The Kamehameha Schools Press, Honolulu.